Memory

What makes us remember? Why do some people have good memories and others poor? Why do we remember some things with ease and find it almost impossible to retain others?

Is there a technique of remembering, a trick of association, a gimmick of arrangement? Or is it as simple a matter as remembering what we want to remember, and forgetting what we don't want to remember?

In defining memory, James D. Weinland writes that there is no sharp dividing line between learning and memory, since all learning is based on memory. He makes time the one distinction, in that memory is learning that persists. A memory so ingrained that it requires no effort at all is a habit. Memory is a function of the mind, and greater intelligence and better memory usually occur together.

Memorizing, according to Knight Dunlap, has to do with thinking about as well as of the item. It also has to do with desire to learn, and with persistence. He recommends avoiding constant evaluation of progress; progress should be checked, but infrequently.

Full attention should be paid to the subject, and, added to that, he suggests negative practice—the effort to forget. The reason for negative practice is the theory that effort is detrimental to achievement. So often we are not able to remember something no matter how hard we try, then when we stop trying we suddenly find ourselves remembering. So Dunlap turns it around and says to try to forget, and this effort will get in the way of forgetting.

In the remembering of details, Dunlap says, the purposes behind the remembering must be considered. Is the subject memorizing in order to use the details thus acquired or for the sake of a stunt? Dunlap is weighing values as well as means in this discussion. He also mentions the importance of personal and social adjustment.

The over-all theory behind Dunlap's discussion is that the way of learning lies in the formation of habits. Here we see a similarity to the conditioning theory. But in Dunlap's approach other factors are stressed as equally important. In order to break habits, for instance, it is necessary to understand the situation, to accept the proper ideals, to have a genuine desire to realize these ideals, and to persist in practice aimed at accomplishing the end in view. There are habits of thought and habits of emotional response. Learning ability, which he calls intelligence, varies, with home influence, social training, basic learning ability and incentive.

Ian M. L. Hunter, in discussing memory, tells us it is easier to recognize than to recall. Among the considerations in determining how quickly we can memorize are meaningfulness, which helps, and the amount of material to be memorized, for as the material increases, the length of time necessary for learning increases disproportionately.

The characteristics of the learner must be considered as well—his emotional state, the deterrent effects of illness, fatigue, drugs, or excitement. It is theorized that age affects learning capacities as well. It is claimed that there is a progressively diminishing increase in memory span with the increase of age. Intelligence brings with it high learning efficiency. And speed has values apart from the time-saving aspects: it has been found that a fast learner learns better.

Hunter reports that reading plus recitation results in better learning and remembering than reading alone. The explanation is that the combination of the two involves active participation, provides knowledge of results and increases motivation, and constitutes direct preparation for later recalling. He finds pros and cons in the argument about whole versus part learning. Both, he concludes, have their uses.

• Whole learning is good for short pieces, but a combination would be necessary for longer and more difficult material.



• Short learning sessions are advised.



• The best results are achieved when they are spaced.



• Accurate first impressions are extremely important.



• Rhythm in the material is important.



• Overlearning (review) is recommended, as well as integrating the material.

There is no one cause of forgetting, Hunter states. The reason could be physiological—for instance, a deterioration of the trace, that is, of the organic changes produced by learning; or an actual injury or disease of the brain. Another cause could lie in behavioral processes, which include retroactive interference, altered conditions during remembering, and repression.

It is pointed out that interpretation can affect or distort memory. This accounts for inaccurate witnessing, where the facts reported are the results of observation plus interpretation. This includes on-the-spot interpretation, which happens almost without the observer's awareness, and the subtle changes that occur in the course of thinking about the event later. The memory becomes clouded and colored by myriad influences.